2026 수특 영독연 13강 변형문제 (12-18번)

While new media allow us to do new things, make new kinds of meanings, and think, relate to others and enact our own identities in new ____ they also invariably introduce limitations on what we can do and mean, how we can think and relate, and who we can ‘be’ when we are using them.

Television news, for example, allows for a vivid and dramatic presentation of a ____ but may be less suitable than a newspaper or magazine for lengthy and probing analysis.

Social networking sites make it easier for us to stay connected to our friends, but make it more difficult to maintain ____ privacy (especially from advertisers).

Caller identification, which is standard on most mobile phones, makes it easier for us to screen our calls, but it also makes it easier for calls that we make to be screened ____ others.

Often the constraints of new technologies ____ less visible to us than their affordances. We tend to be so focused on the new things we can do with a new tool that we don’t pay attention to the things we cannot do with it.

When given many chances, chance will tend to distribute random differences fairly ____

However, when given few chances, it may distribute ____ differences very unequally.

Thus, if you assigned each individual to a group by flipping a coin and you had many participants, ____ would do a ① good job of making your groups equivalent.

Conversely, if you had few participants, chance would probably do a poor job of ② ____ the effects of individual differences between groups. Indeed, with too few participants, chance has no chance.

For example, if you had ____ people in your study and only one of those was violent, flipping a coin could not give you ③ equal groups.

Even if you had eight participants, four of whom were violent, flipping a coin might result in all four violent individuals ____ up in the same group.

Why? Because, in the short run, chance ____ be unpredictable.

For instance, it is not that unusual to ____ four “heads” in a row.

To appreciate that chance can be unpredictable in the short run but ⑤ dependable in the long run, realize that although a casino ____ lose several bets in a row, the casino always wins in the end.

Social transmission of predator recognition makes functional sense ____ individuals that must experience predators for themselves to learn they are dangerous may not survive those experiences.

The best-analyzed example involves monkeys’ fear ____ snakes.

Monkeys reared in captivity do ____ exhibit fear the first time they encounter live or toy snakes.

If they watch another monkey behaving fearfully toward ____ snake, they later do the same themselves.

During the learning trial the naive observer ____ behavior like the model’s (in this case responses such as withdrawal, vocalization, and piloerection).

If naive monkeys ____ a model behaving fearfully toward a snake and neutrally toward another object like a flower, they acquire the same discrimination.

For example, if they are later offered raisins ____ are out of reach beyond a flower or a snake, they reach quickly over the flower but refuse to reach over the snake.

In the 1880s, a German psychologist named Hermann Ebbinghaus shut himself up in a room in Paris to test ____ memory works.

He ____ himself to learn, review, and recall nonsense words on a specific, timed schedule.

____ Ebbinghaus discovered was that the rate of forgetting was predictable.

He discovered a pattern of ____ how long it took to forget.

If he reminded himself of one of his nonsense words just before he knew he was about to ____ it — but no sooner — he could save himself hours of studying but still recall the information correctly.

The ____ was knowing when he was about to forget it.

Ebbinghaus’s memorization technique ____ known as spaced repetition.

Essentially, it was the most highly specific, scientifically ____ study schedule you could dream of.

Over a hundred years later, specially designed computer programs ____ following a modified version of Ebbinghaus’s schedules feasible.

Linguist Philip Lieberman argues that human ancestors (e.g., Homo erectus) had the ability to speak, although their speech would not have been as refined as ____ humans’ speech.

____ conclusion is based on reasoning about why the human vocal tract has the shape it does.

Lieberman notes that to produce vowel sounds ____ as / i/ (as in meet) and /u/ (as in you), the space above the larynx in the throat has to be about the same length as the horizontal space between the top of the throat and the mouth opening.

For natural selection to produce and maintain ____ arrangement, Lieberman argues, some basic speech abilities must have been present beforehand.

Natural selection could then have favored individuals who had physical characteristics that allowed them to ____ a wider range of vowel sounds.

Unless some basic speech abilities were present prior to the appearance of Homo sapiens, a lowered larynx, and the accompanying ability to produce more vowel sounds, would have to be the result of a massive and incredibly lucky mutation, rather than gradual evolution by natural ____

What is the ____ of a concept and how does it contribute to the meaning of a sentence?

Philosophers have been particularly vexed by this question and have developed a range ____ possible answers to it.

On the one hand, the meaning of a concept seems to derive from the meaning of other concepts, as when a child is told ____ meaning of sprint by saying it is a kind of fast running.

On the other hand, the meaning of a concept is connected to observations of things in the ____ as when the child actually sees someone sprinting.

A concept’s meaning ____ normally not given by definition in terms of other concepts, since successful exact definitions are rare.

Nor ____ meaning exhausted by a set of examples, as if one identified the concept of dog with a set of dogs.

A theory of meaning of the concepts must therefore include an account of how concepts are related both to each other ____ to the world.

Both aspects are necessary in ____ for us to understand how concepts underlie our ability to use language.

In local communities where they know each other well, speakers and listeners are able, for the most part, to draw on knowledge ____ overlapping language habits to converse or argue about moral and political issues.

This may still be the case, to some extent, when communities of speakers who engage regularly with one another in practical activities do not ____ speak the same languages, or speak them equally fluently.

Sometimes, however, potential parties to a verbal exchange find themselves sharing little more than physical proximity to one ____

Such situations arise when members of communities with radically different language traditions ____ no history of previous contact with one another come face to face and are forced to communicate.

There is no way to predict the outcome of such enforced contact on either speech community, yet from these new shared experiences, new forms of practice, including a new form of language — pidgin ____ may develop.