2026 수특 영독연 13강 변형문제 (12-18번)

While new media allow us to do new things, make new kinds of meanings, and think, relate to others and enact our own identities in new ways, they also invariably introduce limitations on ____ we can do and mean, how we can think and relate, and who we can ‘be’ when we are using them.

Television news, for example, allows for a vivid and dramatic presentation of a story, but may be less suitable than a ____ or magazine for lengthy and probing analysis.

Social networking sites make ____ easier for us to stay connected to our friends, but make it more difficult to maintain our privacy (especially from advertisers).

Caller identification, which ____ standard on most mobile phones, makes it easier for us to screen our calls, but it also makes it easier for calls that we make to be screened by others.

Often the constraints of new technologies are less visible to us than their ____ We tend to be so focused on the new things we can do with a new tool that we don’t pay attention to the things we cannot do with it.

When given many ____ chance will tend to distribute random differences fairly equally.

However, when given few chances, it may distribute ____ differences very unequally.

Thus, if you assigned each individual to a group ____ flipping a coin and you had many participants, chance would do a ① good job of making your groups equivalent.

Conversely, if you had few participants, chance would probably ____ a poor job of ② balancing the effects of individual differences between groups. Indeed, with too few participants, chance has no chance.

For example, if you had four people in your study and only one of those was violent, flipping a coin could not give you ____ equal groups.

Even if you ____ eight participants, four of whom were violent, flipping a coin might result in all four violent individuals ending up in the same group.

Why? Because, in the short ____ chance can be unpredictable.

For instance, it is not that unusual to get four “heads” in ____ row.

To appreciate that chance can be unpredictable in ____ short run but ⑤ dependable in the long run, realize that although a casino may lose several bets in a row, the casino always wins in the end.

Social transmission of predator recognition ____ functional sense because individuals that must experience predators for themselves to learn they are dangerous may not survive those experiences.

The best-analyzed ____ involves monkeys’ fear of snakes.

Monkeys reared in captivity do not ____ fear the first time they encounter live or toy snakes.

If they watch another monkey behaving fearfully toward a snake, they later ____ the same themselves.

During ____ learning trial the naive observer exhibits behavior like the model’s (in this case responses such as withdrawal, vocalization, and piloerection).

If naive monkeys observe a model behaving fearfully toward a snake and neutrally toward another object like a flower, they acquire the same ____

For example, if they are later offered raisins that are out of reach beyond a flower or a snake, they reach quickly over the flower ____ refuse to reach over the snake.

In the 1880s, a German psychologist named Hermann Ebbinghaus shut himself up in ____ room in Paris to test how memory works.

He forced himself to learn, review, and recall nonsense ____ on a specific, timed schedule.

What Ebbinghaus discovered was that the rate of forgetting was ____

He discovered a pattern ____ exactly how long it took to forget.

If he reminded himself of one of his nonsense words just before he knew he was about to ____ it — but no sooner — he could save himself hours of studying but still recall the information correctly.

The trick was knowing when he was about ____ forget it.

Ebbinghaus’s memorization ____ became known as spaced repetition.

Essentially, it was the most ____ specific, scientifically based study schedule you could dream of.

Over a hundred years later, specially designed computer programs made ____ a modified version of Ebbinghaus’s schedules feasible.

Linguist Philip Lieberman argues that human ancestors (e.g., Homo erectus) had the ability to speak, although their speech would not have been as ____ as modern humans’ speech.

This conclusion is ____ on reasoning about why the human vocal tract has the shape it does.

Lieberman notes that to produce vowel sounds such as / i/ (as in meet) and ____ (as in you), the space above the larynx in the throat has to be about the same length as the horizontal space between the top of the throat and the mouth opening.

For ____ selection to produce and maintain this arrangement, Lieberman argues, some basic speech abilities must have been present beforehand.

Natural selection could then have favored individuals who had physical characteristics that allowed them to produce a wider range ____ vowel sounds.

Unless some basic speech abilities were present prior to the appearance of Homo sapiens, a lowered larynx, and the accompanying ability to produce more ____ sounds, would have to be the result of a massive and incredibly lucky mutation, rather than gradual evolution by natural selection.

What is the ____ of a concept and how does it contribute to the meaning of a sentence?

Philosophers have been particularly vexed by this question and have developed a range of possible answers ____ it.

On the one hand, the meaning of a concept seems to derive from the ____ of other concepts, as when a child is told the meaning of sprint by saying it is a kind of fast running.

On ____ other hand, the meaning of a concept is connected to observations of things in the world, as when the child actually sees someone sprinting.

A concept’s meaning is normally not given by definition in terms of other concepts, since successful exact ____ are rare.

Nor ____ meaning exhausted by a set of examples, as if one identified the concept of dog with a set of dogs.

A theory of meaning of the concepts must therefore include an account of how concepts are ____ both to each other and to the world.

Both aspects are ____ in order for us to understand how concepts underlie our ability to use language.

In local communities where they know each other well, speakers and listeners are able, for the most part, to draw on knowledge of ____ language habits to converse or argue about moral and political issues.

This may still be the case, to some extent, when communities of speakers who engage regularly with one another in practical activities do not all speak the same ____ or speak them equally fluently.

Sometimes, however, potential parties to a verbal exchange find themselves ____ little more than physical proximity to one another.

Such situations arise when members of communities with radically ____ language traditions and no history of previous contact with one another come face to face and are forced to communicate.

There is no way to predict the outcome of such enforced contact on either speech community, yet from these new shared experiences, new forms ____ practice, including a new form of language — pidgin — may develop.