Week 1 제2강
Exercise 1 관찰자 과업 단순화의 이점
To illustrate the benefits of simplifying the ____ job, consider psychologist William Ickes's research on "everyday mind reading."
One way he studies such mind ____ is by having two strangers interact.
He tapes the interaction and then has each participant ____ the tape.
Participants are to stop the tape at different points and say what they ____ thinking.
Then, participants see the tape again and are to stop it at different points and write down what ____ interaction partner was thinking at that point.
Observers rate the ____ to which the participant's guess about what the partner was thinking matches what the partner was actually thinking.
Ickes could have had observers make their judgments on a 0 (not at all) to 100 (completely) ____
However, he had ____ use a 3-point scale with "0" being "essentially different content," "1" being "similar, but not the same, content," and "2" being "essentially the same content."
By using fewer categories, raters ____ the job of rating easier and were able to make reliable ratings.
Exercise 2 본능이라는 개념의 특징
Instinct ____ the most difficult of the motivation words to define.
At the everyday level ____ is used often.
For ____ a sports commentator might say, 'He made that pass instinctively.'
This means that the pass was made easily, automatically, with great skill and with ____ seemingly intuitive knowledge of the state of the game.
However, at a technical level the word refers to behaviours that are built in, ____ appear in a similar form, and are specific to a species.
So, a spider builds a web instinctively and a bird's mating display ____ be instinctive.
It is unlikely, though, that there is any equivalent instinctive ____ in human beings.
Some people might argue that a mother's reaction to her newly born child is instinctive, but certainly not all mothers react in the same way and even ____ they do, they express it in myriad forms.
In general, instinct has been found to be a not very useful construct in giving accounts of the ____ of behaviour.
Exercise 3 광범위한 언론 보도가 기억에 미치는 영향
An indication of the power of TV to "capture" people's memory is provided by the results of a study by James Ost and coworkers, who approached people in ____ English shopping center and asked if they would be willing to participate in a study examining how well people can remember tragic events.
The target event involved Princess Diana and her companion Dodi Fayed, ____ deaths in a car crash in Paris on August 31, 1997, were widely covered on British television.
Participants were asked to respond to the following statement: "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of ____ and Dodi Fayed lost their lives?"
Of the 45 people who responded to this question, 20 said ____ had seen the film.
This was, ____ impossible, because no such film exists.
The car crash was reported ____ TV, but not actually shown.
The extensive media coverage of this event apparently caused some people to remember something ― seeing the film ― that ____ actually occur.
Exercise 4 정치적 결정에서의 표현 방식의 영향
Our political decisions are determined by ____ the options are framed, and this mechanism can make a mockery of the feeling that our democratic choices proceed by ordering our desires or preferences.
Political conversation evokes a range ____ loosely connected attitudes.
In three successive years, researchers from the General Social Survey asked whether we were spending "too much, too little, ____ about the right amount" on a variety of government programs.
In each year, 20 to 25 percent of the respondents said that too little was being spent on "welfare," but 63 to 65 percent said that too little was being spent on "assistance ____ the poor."
Once again, if our democratic choices were based on the ranking of preferences, our decisions wouldn't be affected differently by the terms "welfare" and ____ to the poor."
But these two concepts could certainly tap into different aspects of our ____ toward this assistance.
And we may resist ____ findings because they conflict with a story we hold dear about free will and choice — in this case, democratic choice.
Exercise 5 뇌의 무의식적 계산 능력
____ the sum or average of several positive and negative values indeed lies within the normal repertoire of what elementary circuits of neurons can do without consciousness.
Even ____ monkey can learn to make a decision based on the total value brought about by a series of arbitrary shapes, and the firing of parietal neurons keeps track of the sum.
In my laboratory, we proved that approximate addition is within grasp of the human ____
In one experiment, we flashed a series of five arrows and asked subjects ____ more arrows were pointing right or pointing left.
When the arrows were made invisible by masking, participants were asked to ____ and indeed they thought that they were responding randomly, but in reality they continued to do much better than chance would predict.
Signals from their ____ cortex gave evidence that their brain was unconsciously computing the approximate sum of the overall evidence.
The arrows were subjectively invisible, but they still made their way into the ____ weighting and decision systems.
Exercise 6 기억의 종류
It has often been ____ that men of genius have bad memories, and that persons having extraordinary memories, like Cardinal Mezzofanti, have little else.
The truth is that there are two quite distinct kinds of memory: the memory for ____ facts and words, apart from their significance; and the memory for spiritual facts and principles.
The man of genius, who may have no special reason for cultivating the lower kind of memory, ____ even find it rather a hindrance than a help.
His prayer ____ "Let not my heart forget the things my eyes have seen."
So long ____ his heart retains the significance of the facts he has seen and the words he has heard, he is willing to let the words and the facts go, as a man casts away the shells after he has eaten the oysters.
The "well-informed" person commonly differs from the man of genius in this: that he carries about with him all the shells of all the oysters he has ever eaten, and that his soul has grown ____ under the burden.
Exercise 7 과학적 과정에서의 끈기
The scientific process is invariably non-linear and can be long ____ drawn out, with hypotheses sitting on the shelf until the time has come to dust them down, if that ever finally arrives.
Sometimes you sit waiting for the tide to come ____ but it never actually does.
For every new theory and paper, there are many that fell ____ the wayside for lack of time, funding or data.
Like ____ music industry, the hits are few and far between and don't always come when or from where you expect.
____ important not to be discouraged by this: the fact that not every idea comes to fruition isn't a good reason to have fewer of them.
Scientific breakthroughs ultimately depend on people working away without the immediate reward of achieving anything tangible: trying things that don't work (but might still be useful) and devising bits of a solution that won't be relevant until some undefined ____ in the future.
Such patience is ____ bedrock on which progress is eventually achieved — stitched together from all those loose bits of fabric that could so easily have been discarded.
Exercise 8 알고리즘에 대한 우리의 기대
Contingency implies selection and ____
It means that there are a number of possible options to choose from, and our decisions could always ____ different.
However, algorithms by definition do not know uncertainty; they do not choose ____ possibilities, nor are they creative, being designed to follow the instructions that program their behavior.
In this sense, algorithms are not contingent — which is ____ they can operate so efficiently and reliably.
Just like traditional machines, we expect algorithms to be neither unpredictable ____ idiosyncratic, even when they deliver information.
Different watches should all indicate the same time to all users, if ____ work properly.
As von Foerster observed, if the outcome of ____ traditional machine becomes unpredictable, we do not think that it is creative or original — we think that it is broken.
We do not care about the moods nor the ____ of machines, only about their results.
We repair ____ precisely to restore their predictability.
Exercise 9 쾌락에 대한 성찰
Pleasure as conscious enjoyment of our sensory endowment, enhanced by the capacity both to anticipate and to remember it, heightens enjoyment in ____ moment of listening to music, eating good food, dancing, swimming, sunbathing, and so variously on.
Enjoyment 'in the moment' is the greater for not being subjected to intellectual analysis as ____ occurs; obviously, we do better to leave it to unfold as purely itself.
But it is equally obvious that reflection on the nature and sources of pleasure is not irrelevant ____ their best enjoyment.
The pleasure of a half-hour listening to music is the greater because the music was chosen, the quality of sound reproduction is good, anticipation and expectation were engaged, and one prepared oneself to ____
Think of the informative contrast here, how pain or discomfort is exacerbated by fearful anticipation; the tense dental patient who has been dreading the drill for days ____ a worse time than a relaxed patient.
The key to seeing pleasure as a good is to see how it fits into an overall conception of ____ life worth living; this is how the ill consequences of certain types of pleasures-of-the-moment discount them as options.
Exercise 10 과학에서의 이상화
The sciences ____ make extensive use of idealizations.
The ideal gas law describes the relationship of pressure, volume, and temperature of gases under conditions that never perfectly ____
In particular, it makes simplifying assumptions about ____ molecules making up gases — for example, that they do not attract or repel one another and do not themselves take up volume.
The molecules of real gases are not ____ this, but their behavior is nonetheless close enough to ideal ones that the gas law is useful.
Indeed, there are philosophers of science who argue that ____ is the best way to think about scientific theories in general; they are best regarded as models that are precisely accurate only under conditions that are never entirely realized.
____ on such views, however, the theories are still meant to be descriptive.
They are ____ be used to make predictions and offer explanations about the behavior of gases or whatever phenomena are at issue in real situations.
There ____ accordingly, constraints as to how idealized they can be.
They cannot ____ so far removed from real world systems as to be worthless in describing actual phenomena with acceptable degrees of accuracy.
Exercise 11 선택에 대한 후회
What ____ true is that regret happens when we view a large-world problem like a small-world problem.
In a small world, where all choices, consequences, and probabilities are known, we can be certain about ____ much we would have won if only we had picked a different horse in a race or chosen different numbers in the lottery.
____ in a large world, where not all choices, consequences, and probabilities are known, we can never truly compare the choices we made with those we didn't make.
We can never know what would have happened if we had ____ another job, or married another person, or moved to another city because those scenarios don't play out without us.
So, when we conjure up regrets about what might have been, we are comparing what we know to what we ____ know.
What's worse is that, much like the upward social comparisons we make on social media, we torture ourselves with ____ the realities of our situation stack up against an imagined ideal.
Exercise 12 자서전적 기억의 발달
The emotional tenor of our conversations may ____ particularly important in a child's early years.
Indeed, family dialogues from decades past may still be influencing your mental ____ today.
To ____ why, we need a quick primer on the development of our autobiographical memories.
In the first few years of life, most children can remember only the slimmest pieces of their experiences — the feel of sand on ____ beach and the prick of a needle in a doctor's surgery.
These may get more detailed as the child ____ more and more vocabulary, but they are largely disconnected from each other; they remain isolated sketches of single events.
____ is only after years of development that the child can slot their recollections into a narrative that has a coherent structure.
By the ____ of adolescence, that narrative may adopt the form of a novel.
The teen will start ____ recognise key events as turning points, with new 'chapters' that represent new eras.
The psychologist Dan McAdams at Northwestern University in ____ describes this as the transition from 'actor' to 'author'.