Week 1 제2강
Exercise 1 관찰자 과업 단순화의 이점
To illustrate the benefits of simplifying the ____ job, consider psychologist William Ickes's research on "everyday mind reading."
One way he studies such mind reading is by having ____ strangers interact.
____ tapes the interaction and then has each participant view the tape.
Participants are to stop the tape at ____ points and say what they are thinking.
Then, participants see the tape again and are to stop it at different points and ____ down what their interaction partner was thinking at that point.
Observers rate the degree to which the participant's guess about what the partner was thinking matches what the partner was actually ____
Ickes could have had observers make their judgments on a 0 (not at all) to ____ (completely) scale.
However, he had observers use a 3-point scale with "0" ____ "essentially different content," "1" being "similar, but not the same, content," and "2" being "essentially the same content."
____ using fewer categories, raters found the job of rating easier and were able to make reliable ratings.
Exercise 2 본능이라는 개념의 특징
Instinct is the most difficult of ____ motivation words to define.
At the everyday level it ____ used often.
For example, a ____ commentator might say, 'He made that pass instinctively.'
____ means that the pass was made easily, automatically, with great skill and with a seemingly intuitive knowledge of the state of the game.
However, at a technical level the word refers to behaviours that are built in, always appear ____ a similar form, and are specific to a species.
So, a spider builds a web ____ and a bird's mating display might be instinctive.
It is unlikely, ____ that there is any equivalent instinctive behaviour in human beings.
Some people might argue that a mother's reaction to her newly born child is instinctive, but certainly not all mothers react in the same way and even when they do, they express it ____ myriad forms.
In general, ____ has been found to be a not very useful construct in giving accounts of the 'why' of behaviour.
Exercise 3 광범위한 언론 보도가 기억에 미치는 영향
An indication of the power of TV to "capture" people's memory is provided by the results of a study by James Ost and coworkers, who approached people in an English ____ center and asked if they would be willing to participate in a study examining how well people can remember tragic events.
The target event involved Princess Diana and her companion Dodi Fayed, whose deaths in a car crash in Paris on August ____ 1997, were widely covered on British television.
Participants were asked to respond to the following statement: "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed lost their ____
Of the 45 people who responded to this question, 20 said they had ____ the film.
This was, however, impossible, because no ____ film exists.
The car crash was reported on TV, ____ not actually shown.
The extensive media coverage of this event apparently caused some people to remember something ― seeing the film ― that ____ actually occur.
Exercise 4 정치적 결정에서의 표현 방식의 영향
Our political decisions are determined by how the options are framed, and this mechanism can make a mockery of the feeling that our democratic choices proceed by ordering our ____ or preferences.
Political conversation evokes a range ____ loosely connected attitudes.
In three successive years, ____ from the General Social Survey asked whether we were spending "too much, too little, or about the right amount" on a variety of government programs.
In each year, 20 to 25 percent of the respondents ____ that too little was being spent on "welfare," but 63 to 65 percent said that too little was being spent on "assistance to the poor."
Once again, if our democratic choices were based on the ranking of preferences, our decisions wouldn't be affected differently by ____ terms "welfare" and "assistance to the poor."
But these ____ concepts could certainly tap into different aspects of our attitudes toward this assistance.
And we may resist these findings because they ____ with a story we hold dear about free will and choice — in this case, democratic choice.
Exercise 5 뇌의 무의식적 계산 능력
____ the sum or average of several positive and negative values indeed lies within the normal repertoire of what elementary circuits of neurons can do without consciousness.
Even a monkey can learn to make a decision ____ on the total value brought about by a series of arbitrary shapes, and the firing of parietal neurons keeps track of the sum.
____ my laboratory, we proved that approximate addition is within grasp of the human unconscious.
In one experiment, we flashed a series of ____ arrows and asked subjects whether more arrows were pointing right or pointing left.
When the arrows were made invisible by masking, participants were asked to guess, and indeed they thought that they were responding randomly, but in reality ____ continued to do much better than chance would predict.
Signals from their parietal cortex gave evidence that their brain ____ unconsciously computing the approximate sum of the overall evidence.
The arrows were subjectively invisible, but they still made their way into the brain's weighting and ____ systems.
Exercise 6 기억의 종류
It has often been noted that men of genius have ____ memories, and that persons having extraordinary memories, like Cardinal Mezzofanti, have little else.
The truth is ____ there are two quite distinct kinds of memory: the memory for external facts and words, apart from their significance; and the memory for spiritual facts and principles.
The man of genius, who may have ____ special reason for cultivating the lower kind of memory, may even find it rather a hindrance than a help.
His prayer is, "Let not my heart forget the things my eyes have ____
So long as his heart retains the significance of the facts he has seen and the words he has heard, he is willing to let the words and the facts go, as a man casts ____ the shells after he has eaten the oysters.
The "well-informed" person commonly differs from the man of genius in this: that he ____ about with him all the shells of all the oysters he has ever eaten, and that his soul has grown thin under the burden.
Exercise 7 과학적 과정에서의 끈기
The scientific process is invariably non-linear and can be ____ and drawn out, with hypotheses sitting on the shelf until the time has come to dust them down, if that ever finally arrives.
Sometimes you ____ waiting for the tide to come in, but it never actually does.
For every new theory and paper, there are many that fell by the wayside for lack of time, funding ____ data.
Like the music industry, the hits are few ____ far between and don't always come when or from where you expect.
____ important not to be discouraged by this: the fact that not every idea comes to fruition isn't a good reason to have fewer of them.
Scientific breakthroughs ultimately depend on people working away without the immediate reward of achieving anything tangible: trying things that don't work (but might still be useful) and devising bits of a solution that won't be relevant until some undefined ____ in the future.
____ patience is the bedrock on which progress is eventually achieved — stitched together from all those loose bits of fabric that could so easily have been discarded.
Exercise 8 알고리즘에 대한 우리의 기대
Contingency implies selection ____ uncertainty.
It means that there are a number of possible options to choose from, and our decisions ____ always be different.
However, algorithms by definition do not know uncertainty; they ____ not choose between possibilities, nor are they creative, being designed to follow the instructions that program their behavior.
In this sense, algorithms are not contingent — which is why they can operate so efficiently ____ reliably.
Just like traditional machines, we expect algorithms to be neither ____ nor idiosyncratic, even when they deliver information.
Different watches should all indicate the same time to all ____ if they work properly.
As von Foerster observed, if the outcome ____ a traditional machine becomes unpredictable, we do not think that it is creative or original — we think that it is broken.
We do not care about the moods nor the perspectives of machines, only about ____ results.
We repair them precisely to restore ____ predictability.
Exercise 9 쾌락에 대한 성찰
Pleasure as conscious enjoyment of our sensory endowment, enhanced by the capacity both to anticipate and to remember it, heightens enjoyment in the moment of listening to music, eating ____ food, dancing, swimming, sunbathing, and so variously on.
Enjoyment 'in the moment' is the greater for not being subjected to intellectual analysis as ____ occurs; obviously, we do better to leave it to unfold as purely itself.
But it is equally obvious that reflection on the nature and sources of pleasure is not irrelevant to their ____ enjoyment.
The pleasure of a half-hour listening to music is the greater because the music was chosen, the quality of sound reproduction is good, anticipation and expectation were ____ and one prepared oneself to listen.
Think of the informative contrast here, how pain or discomfort is exacerbated by fearful anticipation; the tense dental patient who has been dreading ____ drill for days has a worse time than a relaxed patient.
The key to seeing pleasure as a good is to see how it fits into an overall ____ of the life worth living; this is how the ill consequences of certain types of pleasures-of-the-moment discount them as options.
Exercise 10 과학에서의 이상화
The sciences do make extensive ____ of idealizations.
The ideal gas law describes the relationship of ____ volume, and temperature of gases under conditions that never perfectly obtain.
In particular, it makes simplifying assumptions about the molecules making up gases — for example, that they do not attract or repel one another and do not themselves ____ up volume.
The molecules ____ real gases are not like this, but their behavior is nonetheless close enough to ideal ones that the gas law is useful.
Indeed, there are philosophers of science who argue that this is the best way to think about scientific theories in general; they are best ____ as models that are precisely accurate only under conditions that are never entirely realized.
Even on such views, however, the theories are still meant ____ be descriptive.
They are to be used to make predictions and offer explanations about the behavior of gases or whatever phenomena ____ at issue in real situations.
There are, accordingly, constraints as to ____ idealized they can be.
They cannot be so far removed from real world systems as to be worthless in describing ____ phenomena with acceptable degrees of accuracy.
Exercise 11 선택에 대한 후회
What is true ____ that regret happens when we view a large-world problem like a small-world problem.
In a small world, where all choices, consequences, and probabilities are known, we can be certain about how much we would have won if only we had picked a different horse in a race or chosen different numbers in ____ lottery.
However, in a large world, where not all choices, consequences, and probabilities ____ known, we can never truly compare the choices we made with those we didn't make.
We can never know what would have happened if we had ____ another job, or married another person, or moved to another city because those scenarios don't play out without us.
So, when we conjure ____ regrets about what might have been, we are comparing what we know to what we don't know.
What's ____ is that, much like the upward social comparisons we make on social media, we torture ourselves with how the realities of our situation stack up against an imagined ideal.
Exercise 12 자서전적 기억의 발달
The emotional tenor of our conversations may be particularly important in a ____ early years.
Indeed, ____ dialogues from decades past may still be influencing your mental health today.
To understand why, we need ____ quick primer on the development of our autobiographical memories.
In the first few years of life, most children can remember only the slimmest pieces of their experiences — the feel ____ sand on the beach and the prick of a needle in a doctor's surgery.
These may get more detailed as the child learns more and more vocabulary, but they are largely disconnected from each other; they ____ isolated sketches of single events.
It is only after years of ____ that the child can slot their recollections into a narrative that has a coherent structure.
By the ____ of adolescence, that narrative may adopt the form of a novel.
The teen will start to recognise key events as turning points, with new 'chapters' that ____ new eras.
The psychologist Dan McAdams at Northwestern University ____ Illinois describes this as the transition from 'actor' to 'author'.