Week 1 제2강
Exercise 1 관찰자 과업 단순화의 이점
To illustrate ____ benefits of simplifying the observer's job, consider psychologist William Ickes's research on "everyday mind reading."
One way ____ studies such mind reading is by having two strangers interact.
He ____ the interaction and then has each participant view the tape.
Participants are to stop the tape at different points and say what they ____ thinking.
Then, participants see the tape again and are to stop it at ____ points and write down what their interaction partner was thinking at that point.
____ rate the degree to which the participant's guess about what the partner was thinking matches what the partner was actually thinking.
Ickes could have had observers make their judgments ____ a 0 (not at all) to 100 (completely) scale.
However, he had observers ____ a 3-point scale with "0" being "essentially different content," "1" being "similar, but not the same, content," and "2" being "essentially the same content."
By using fewer categories, raters found the job of rating easier and were able ____ make reliable ratings.
Exercise 2 본능이라는 개념의 특징
Instinct is the most difficult ____ the motivation words to define.
At the ____ level it is used often.
For example, a sports commentator might say, 'He made that pass ____
This means that the pass was made easily, ____ with great skill and with a seemingly intuitive knowledge of the state of the game.
However, at a technical level the word refers to behaviours that are built ____ always appear in a similar form, and are specific to a species.
So, a spider builds a web instinctively and ____ bird's mating display might be instinctive.
It is unlikely, though, that there is any equivalent instinctive ____ in human beings.
Some people might argue that a mother's reaction to her newly ____ child is instinctive, but certainly not all mothers react in the same way and even when they do, they express it in myriad forms.
In general, instinct has been found to be a not very useful construct ____ giving accounts of the 'why' of behaviour.
Exercise 3 광범위한 언론 보도가 기억에 미치는 영향
An indication of the power of TV to "capture" people's memory is provided by the results of a study by James Ost and coworkers, who approached people in an English shopping ____ and asked if they would be willing to participate in a study examining how well people can remember tragic events.
The target ____ involved Princess Diana and her companion Dodi Fayed, whose deaths in a car crash in Paris on August 31, 1997, were widely covered on British television.
Participants were asked to respond to the following statement: "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of ____ and Dodi Fayed lost their lives?"
Of the 45 people who responded to this question, 20 said they had seen ____ film.
____ was, however, impossible, because no such film exists.
____ car crash was reported on TV, but not actually shown.
The extensive media coverage of this event apparently caused some people to remember something ― seeing the film ― ____ didn't actually occur.
Exercise 4 정치적 결정에서의 표현 방식의 영향
Our political decisions are determined by how the options are framed, and this mechanism can make a mockery of the feeling that our democratic choices proceed by ordering our desires ____ preferences.
Political conversation evokes ____ range of loosely connected attitudes.
In three successive years, researchers from the General Social Survey asked whether we were spending "too ____ too little, or about the right amount" on a variety of government programs.
In each year, 20 to 25 percent of the respondents said that too little was being ____ on "welfare," but 63 to 65 percent said that too little was being spent on "assistance to the poor."
Once again, if our democratic choices were based on the ranking of preferences, our decisions wouldn't be affected ____ by the terms "welfare" and "assistance to the poor."
But these two concepts could certainly tap into different ____ of our attitudes toward this assistance.
And we may resist these findings because they conflict with a story we hold dear about free ____ and choice — in this case, democratic choice.
Exercise 5 뇌의 무의식적 계산 능력
Computing the sum ____ average of several positive and negative values indeed lies within the normal repertoire of what elementary circuits of neurons can do without consciousness.
Even a monkey can learn to make a decision based on the total value brought about by a series of arbitrary shapes, and the firing of parietal neurons keeps track of ____ sum.
In my ____ we proved that approximate addition is within grasp of the human unconscious.
In one experiment, we flashed a series of five ____ and asked subjects whether more arrows were pointing right or pointing left.
____ the arrows were made invisible by masking, participants were asked to guess, and indeed they thought that they were responding randomly, but in reality they continued to do much better than chance would predict.
Signals from their parietal cortex gave evidence that their brain was ____ computing the approximate sum of the overall evidence.
The arrows were ____ invisible, but they still made their way into the brain's weighting and decision systems.
Exercise 6 기억의 종류
It has often been noted ____ men of genius have bad memories, and that persons having extraordinary memories, like Cardinal Mezzofanti, have little else.
The truth is that there are two quite distinct kinds ____ memory: the memory for external facts and words, apart from their significance; and the memory for spiritual facts and principles.
The man of genius, who may have no special reason for cultivating the lower ____ of memory, may even find it rather a hindrance than a help.
His prayer is, "Let not ____ heart forget the things my eyes have seen."
So long as his heart retains ____ significance of the facts he has seen and the words he has heard, he is willing to let the words and the facts go, as a man casts away the shells after he has eaten the oysters.
The "well-informed" person commonly differs from the man of genius in this: that he carries about with him all the shells of all the oysters he has ever eaten, and that his soul ____ grown thin under the burden.
Exercise 7 과학적 과정에서의 끈기
The ____ process is invariably non-linear and can be long and drawn out, with hypotheses sitting on the shelf until the time has come to dust them down, if that ever finally arrives.
Sometimes you sit waiting for the tide ____ come in, but it never actually does.
For every new theory and paper, there are many that fell by the wayside for lack of time, funding ____ data.
Like the music industry, the hits are few and far between and don't always come when or from where you ____
It's important not to be discouraged by this: the fact that not every idea comes to fruition isn't a good reason to have fewer of ____
Scientific ____ ultimately depend on people working away without the immediate reward of achieving anything tangible: trying things that don't work (but might still be useful) and devising bits of a solution that won't be relevant until some undefined point in the future.
Such ____ is the bedrock on which progress is eventually achieved — stitched together from all those loose bits of fabric that could so easily have been discarded.
Exercise 8 알고리즘에 대한 우리의 기대
Contingency implies selection and ____
It means ____ there are a number of possible options to choose from, and our decisions could always be different.
However, algorithms by definition do not know uncertainty; they do not choose between possibilities, nor are they creative, being designed to follow the instructions that program their ____
In ____ sense, algorithms are not contingent — which is why they can operate so efficiently and reliably.
Just like traditional machines, we expect ____ to be neither unpredictable nor idiosyncratic, even when they deliver information.
Different watches should ____ indicate the same time to all users, if they work properly.
As von Foerster observed, if the outcome of a traditional machine becomes unpredictable, we do not think that it is creative or original — we think that ____ is broken.
We do not care about the moods nor the ____ of machines, only about their results.
We repair them ____ to restore their predictability.
Exercise 9 쾌락에 대한 성찰
Pleasure as conscious enjoyment of our ____ endowment, enhanced by the capacity both to anticipate and to remember it, heightens enjoyment in the moment of listening to music, eating good food, dancing, swimming, sunbathing, and so variously on.
Enjoyment 'in the moment' is the greater for not being subjected to ____ analysis as it occurs; obviously, we do better to leave it to unfold as purely itself.
But it is equally obvious ____ reflection on the nature and sources of pleasure is not irrelevant to their best enjoyment.
The pleasure of a half-hour listening to music is the greater because the music was chosen, the quality of sound reproduction is good, anticipation ____ expectation were engaged, and one prepared oneself to listen.
Think of the informative contrast here, how pain or discomfort is exacerbated by fearful anticipation; the tense dental patient who has been dreading the drill for ____ has a worse time than a relaxed patient.
The key to seeing pleasure as a good is to see how it fits into an overall conception of the life worth living; this is how the ill consequences of certain types of pleasures-of-the-moment discount them as ____
Exercise 10 과학에서의 이상화
The sciences do make extensive use of ____
The ideal gas law describes the relationship of pressure, volume, and temperature ____ gases under conditions that never perfectly obtain.
In particular, it makes simplifying assumptions about the molecules making up gases — for example, that they do not ____ or repel one another and do not themselves take up volume.
The molecules of real gases are not like this, ____ their behavior is nonetheless close enough to ideal ones that the gas law is useful.
Indeed, there are philosophers of science who argue that this is the best way to think about scientific theories in general; they are best regarded as models that are precisely accurate ____ under conditions that are never entirely realized.
Even on such views, however, the theories ____ still meant to be descriptive.
They are to be used to make predictions and offer explanations about the behavior of gases or whatever phenomena are ____ issue in real situations.
There are, ____ constraints as to how idealized they can be.
They cannot be so far removed from real world systems as to be worthless in describing actual phenomena with acceptable degrees ____ accuracy.
Exercise 11 선택에 대한 후회
What is true is that regret happens when we view a large-world problem like a ____ problem.
In a small world, where all choices, ____ and probabilities are known, we can be certain about how much we would have won if only we had picked a different horse in a race or chosen different numbers in the lottery.
However, in a large world, where not all choices, consequences, ____ probabilities are known, we can never truly compare the choices we made with those we didn't make.
We can never know what would have happened if we had taken another job, or married another person, or moved to ____ city because those scenarios don't play out without us.
So, when we conjure up regrets about what might have been, ____ are comparing what we know to what we don't know.
What's worse is that, much like the upward social comparisons we make on social media, we torture ourselves with ____ the realities of our situation stack up against an imagined ideal.
Exercise 12 자서전적 기억의 발달
The emotional tenor of our conversations may be particularly important in a child's ____ years.
Indeed, family dialogues from decades past may still ____ influencing your mental health today.
To understand why, we need a quick primer ____ the development of our autobiographical memories.
In the first few years of life, most children can remember ____ the slimmest pieces of their experiences — the feel of sand on the beach and the prick of a needle in a doctor's surgery.
These may get more detailed as the child learns more and more ____ but they are largely disconnected from each other; they remain isolated sketches of single events.
It is only after years of development that the child can slot their ____ into a narrative that has a coherent structure.
By the end of adolescence, that narrative may adopt the ____ of a novel.
The teen will start to ____ key events as turning points, with new 'chapters' that represent new eras.
The psychologist Dan McAdams at Northwestern University in Illinois describes this as ____ transition from 'actor' to 'author'.