Week 7 제12강
Exercise 1 성과 평가에서 발생하는 기억 오류와 개선 방법
Problems such as recency error occur because human memory is fallible, and it is challenging for raters to remember all of ____ happened during the appraisal period.
One method ____ dealing with this is to keep performance logs.
As raters record instances of high and ____ performance, there will be more documentation of important performance incidents, and the actual appraisal will be a better reflection of important occurrences of the appraisal period.
Of course, the success of this method will depend on the rater's persistence in recording performance information, which may be hard ____ do due to the time pressures that managers face.
Interestingly, diary keeping does not necessarily reduce the effects ____ liking on performance ratings.
In fact, when raters keep a performance diary for employees, there tends to be ____ stronger relationship between liking and ratings.
It could be that when ____ keep diaries, raters are more likely to note positive events for employees they like, and negative events for employees they dislike.
At the same time, researchers also showed that diary keeping improves rater reactions to the performance appraisal system, probably because diary keeping improves recall and makes ____ easier.
Exercise 2 미시적 정체성의 구획화 전략
The most effective strategies for the ____ of micro-identities have strong boundaries.
Strong boundaries help entrepreneurs keep their identities as entrepreneurs and identities that are not related to ____ distinct.
In other words, ____ from one identity to another are minimal.
These rare transitions between identities ____ the individual to balance his or her distinctiveness and belonging needs.
For instance, moving from a family identity to a founder identity at the beginning of a day fulfills a founder's need for distinctiveness, and the transition from a founder identity to that of an athlete at the end of ____ day fulfills his or her need to belong.
Yet, trying to maintain separate identities with deliberately infrequent transitions using a compartmentalization strategy makes it challenging ____ establish synergies.
That is, two identities need to integrate for the effective realization of synergies, so realizing potential synergies relies on the degree to which identities interact and ____ coordinated.
____ entrepreneurs who utilize compartmentalization to manage multiple micro-identities have increased psychological well-being in the case of strong boundaries between identities but have decreased psychological well-being when there are weak boundaries.
Exercise 3 노년기 기억 구조의 변화와 지혜 형성
Although older adults often notice their increased memory difficulties, there are ____ benefits to the way that older adults' brains record information.
While younger adults' brains may be drafting memory structures with lots of details — some of them unimportant — older adults' memory structures are more likely to ____ just the essential elements.
Remembering just the critical information can make it easier for older adults to avoid the common pitfall of "missing the forest for the ____ allowing them to grasp the overall importance of a situation.
The way older adults' brains build memory structures can also make it easier for them to see commonalities between different situations and to understand how knowledge acquired in one context can be applied to ____ situation at hand.
In fact, some of the wisdom that comes with aging may be attributable to changes in the way the aging brain builds its memory ____
Compared to the brains ____ younger adults, those of older adults tend to retain core ideas, enabling them to identify shared aspects in contexts and develop wisdom from accumulated mental frameworks.
Exercise 4 협상 회피의 결과와 관계 유지
In an ____ to appear easy-going, we may often avoid speaking out for the things that we want or need from life, whether that be in personal relationships or in our working lives.
This means we'll avoid negotiation, because it just ____ feel natural.
Many of us assume ____ negotiating will endanger ongoing relationships with a loved one or with an employer.
But in many cases, this assumption is wrong, and avoiding negotiation means everyone loses: the partner in a relationship who never voices their needs may be taken for granted and decide to leave; the single parent who won't ask for flexible working may end up quitting a good job for ____ dead-end one that better fits the school day.
But by ____ negotiation, such endings can be avoided.
The key is identifying, and striving for, areas of mutual advantage that will allow everyone to benefit ____ some way.
If this happens, both relationships can ____ intact.
Negotiating needn't necessarily entail ____ there may be tough moments on the way to resolution, but by negotiating the problem side by side, you're actually investing in the future relationship, rather than damaging it.
Exercise 5-6 소매점 내 소비자 길 찾기 방식과 기술 활용
Consumers orient themselves in retail stores with the help of spatial references between objects ("The olive oil is on the right under the balsamic vinegar.") ____ pictorial elements ("on the shelf opposite the red column").
Studies also show that consumers orient themselves to distinctive features in the store, such as the main aisles, large objects ____ as refrigerated counters or display units, as well as colored surfaces and advertising boards.
These objects are usually located in the peripheral areas ____ the store.
Therefore, consumers better remember the location of products that are located outside ____ store.
____ locations in the interior of the store are less well remembered because they offer fewer landmarks and are very similar in structure and layout.
To help consumers find their way around the space and to ease the burden on employees, some retailers are setting up touch screens and ____ info terminals.
Some ____ have also developed apps that navigate customers through the store.
Depending on the ____ the apps offer additional value such as discounts, coupons, and product info.
Newer developments include so-called ____ small Bluetooth transmitters that are attached to shelves, signs, or doors, for example, and communicate with the customer's smartphone.
With the help of the small transmitters, retailers can even determine the location of the consumers in the store, navigate them through the store to a special offer, or grant them an individual discount, and thus ____ their consumer behaviors.
Exercise 7 달러화의 양면성
Dollarization refers to a situation where ____ country adopts a foreign currency like the U.S. dollar as its own.
The main disadvantage of ____ is the loss of autonomy.
By ____ under the control of the U.S. Federal Reserve Board, a nation would lose control over its own monetary and to a certain extent even its fiscal policy.
Most nations will consider the cost of coming under another's central bank control too big a loss of autonomy to contemplate, though there have been times, such ____ in the case of Ecuador, where the instabilities were so great that this loss of economic sovereignty may well have been worthwhile.
The only way that the advantages of common currencies will be feasible and more widely acceptable is if we can think ____ central banks as being answerable to all the nations that use the common currency.
The European central bank does have ____ feature of multicountry democracy, and that is the reason why the euro, despite its recent instability, is expected to be a net gain for all the nations that have it as their currency.
Exercise 8 자연 현상을 활용한 이누이트 족의 항해법
Inuit used the stars as one of their navigation tools, making periodic adjustments ____ the star's apparent movement.
Their calculations involved a thorough knowledge of star and constellation positions in relation to their seasonal and ____ cycles.
However, depending entirely on observing the stars would be totally impractical as the stars were frequently obscured ____ cloud, fog, or blowing snow.
For almost five months a ____ the stars could not be observed at all due to the extremely long days.
Consequently, star observations were used as one aspect of the navigational methods along with wind direction, the set of snowdrifts, landmarks, ____ currents and floating seaweed, cloud formations and movement, and atmospheric effects.
While often travelling on moving ____ ice, wayfinders modified their direction, allowing for the movement of the ice and their own passage over it.
Hunters also drew navigational insight from the behaviour of their sled dogs and other animals such ____ walruses and birds.
Exercise 9 집단 이탈을 통한 생존 및 번성 전략
The urge to leave is easy to understand from an ____ perspective.
Mammals ____ when predators lurk and spread out when it's safe.
Tigers and orangutans are the only mammals with no predators and the only mammals ____ live alone.
Gibbons space themselves out in pairs to prevent ____
It's easy to see how ____ would try to avoid conflict by spacing themselves out.
Not only does it improve access to resources, but it frees you from being ____ the bottom of the hierarchy.
If you persuade others to leave with you, you are suddenly in ____ one-up position.
Some people surely perished when they left their natal groups, but others went on to create new settlements that would fissure themselves ____ time.
____ is an effective way to raise your status when you don't expect to win a direct conflict.
In order to avoid social conflict, ____ — like some other animals — may quit their original groups, which can eventually elevate their social standing.
Exercise 10 기억의 불완전성
The act of remembering something is a ____ of bringing back on line those neurons that were involved in the original experience.
The neurons represent the world to us as the thing ____ happening, and as we recall it, those same neurons re-present the thing to us.
Once we get those neurons to become active in a fashion similar to how they ____ during the original event, we experience the memory as a lower-resolution replay of the original event.
If only we could get every one of those original neurons active in exactly the same way they were the first time, our recollections would be strikingly vivid and ____
But remembering ____ imperfect; the instructions for which neurons need to be gathered and how exactly they need to fire are weak and degraded, leading to a representation that is only a dim and often inaccurate copy of the real experience.
Memory is ____
It may present itself to us as fact but ____ highly susceptible to distortion.
Memory ____ not just a replaying, but a rewriting.
Exercise 11-12 유머의 진화적 이점
Darwin said that there must be some ____ of evolutionary advantage associated with humour, and it does indeed appear that humans developed it directly because it has numerous positive properties, and very few negative ones.
Laughing uses up energy, perhaps, ____ the noise created by laughter might have made our early ancestors vulnerable to predators, but these potential problems are far outweighed by the benefits.
Some argue that the pleasure associated with humorous exchange ____ the pleasure derived from social grooming at some stage in our development: both laughter and social grooming release endogenous opiates and so the feelings of gratification positively reinforce both types of behaviour.
Thus, it seems that one early function of humour was as a social lubricant, and the fundamental evolutionary purpose of humour and laughter was to facilitate cooperation between people; ____ a laughing response signals that one is both ready and able to cooperate.
Observations of primates suggest that humour might be linked to our need to partake in mock-aggression and create safe spaces where social ____ can be resolved.
Similarly, anthropologists note that humour in traditional societies often takes the form of joking relationships between people, or individual clowning, ____ purpose is to avoid tensions.
____ can enable expressions of pseudo-violence and activities that allow the saving of face; it permits social hierarchies to be sustained, and can work to reinforce social bonds.