Week 5 제10강
Exercise 1 조롱하는 유머에 대한 인식
People highly sensitive to the ingroup/loyalty ____ should find ridiculing humor particularly appealing (provided their group is not the target).
____ and Bryant argue that ridicule in humor is often used to disparage outgroup members and venerate ingroup members.
As such, those with greater sensitivity to ingroup/loyalty may be rewarded ____ this type of humor's validation of the group.
Evidence of this dynamic can be found in research ____ the widespread appeal of the racially provocative humor in Norman Lear's All in the Family.
Owing in part to the satirical nature of the program, high and low prejudice individuals were able ____ assign different meaning to the content, interpreting it in a manner consistent with their existing views (and social identities).
Specifically, low prejudice viewers perceived the content to be satirical whereas high prejudice ____ interpreted the content to be "telling it like it is."
Thus, audience members selectively perceived the ____ of ridicule as the outgroup member, an outcome facilitated by the show's satirical approach.
Exercise 2 굶어 죽을 위험을 최소화하는 먹이 찾기
____ a small bird nearing the end of a long, cold winter day.
It has the opportunity to visit one last foraging site before dark to get the remaining food energy it needs to ____ the night.
Suppose it requires four more units of food and has a choice of two possible ____
____ yields three units every time it is visited, and is thus of constant quality; the other yields five units on half the occasions it is visited, but nothing at all on the other half, and is therefore of variable quality.
For a rate-maximising predator, the constant site would seem to be best, because its average yield per visit ____ 3 units compared with only 2.5 at the variable site.
Unfortunately, were our bird to be tempted by this, ____ would be dead by morning.
Clearly the only way it is ____ to see another dawn is to go for the variable site and gamble on getting 5 units instead of none.
Such a decision would be based on minimising the risk of starvation rather than maximising net rate of intake, and ____ bird would be said to forage in a risk-sensitive fashion.
Exercise 3 재현 예술의 정의와 목표
The true definition of representative art is not that the artifact resembles an original, but that the feeling evoked by the artifact resembles the feeling evoked ____ the original.
When a portrait is said ____ be like the sitter, what is meant is that the spectator, when he looks at the portrait, 'feels as if he were in the sitter's presence.'
This is ____ the representative artist as such is aiming at.
He knows how he wants to make his audience feel, and he constructs his artifact in such a way that it ____ make them feel like that.
Up to a point, this is done by representing the object literally; but ____ that point it is done by skilful departure from literal representation.
The ____ in question, like any other form of skill, is a matter of devising means to a given end, and is acquired empirically, by observing how certain artifacts affect certain audiences, and thus through experience becoming able to produce in one's audience the kind of effect one wants to produce.
Representative art seeks ____ bring out an emotional response associated with an original subject, achieved by using observation and experience to exceed any literal representation at some point.
Exercise 4 목격자 증언의 신뢰도
The research psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has done more than anyone ____ to help juries understand research implications on eyewitness testimony.
In her expert testimony, she explains to juries that eyewitness testimony can be very unreliable, that recalling is not like playing back a videotape, and that ____ fill in many of the missing details without knowing it — a process called confabulation.
It is common for ____ attorneys to call upon other expert witnesses in an attempt to rebut Loftus's testimony.
But such ____ don't deny, or present evidence against, the existence of confabulation.
Instead, they usually raise the ____ that the eyewitness testimony is accurate.
____ is one of the best established effects in cognitive psychology, so the concept itself is hard to rebut.
It is less ____ to assert exceptions to scientific generalizations.
The ____ expert might report having known someone with uncanny recall, or having had occasional research subjects with that ability.
This fact, of course, would in no way compromise the findings on memory, nor would you need an ____ to make the observation.
Exercise 5-6 동물의 수량 계산 능력
Addition is not the only numerical operation ____ the animal repertoire.
The ability to compare two numerical quantities is an even ____ fundamental ability, and indeed it is widespread among animals.
Show a chimpanzee two trays ____ which you have placed several bits of chocolate.
On the first tray, two piles of chocolate chips are visible, one with ____ pieces, and the other with three pieces.
The second tray contains a pile with five pieces of chocolate and, separate ____ it, a single piece.
Leave the animal enough time to watch the situation carefully before ____ it choose one tray and eat its content.
____ tray do you think that it will pick?
Most of the time, without training, the chimpanzee selects the tray with the largest total number of chocolate ____
Hence, the greedy primate must spontaneously ____ the total of the first tray (4 + 3 = 7), then the total of the second tray (5 + 1 = 6), and finally it must reckon that 7 is larger than 6 and that it is therefore advantageous to choose the first tray.
If the chimp could not do the additions but was content with choosing the tray with the largest single pile of chocolates, it should have been wrong in this particular example because, while the pile ____ five chips on the second tray exceeds each of the piles on the first tray, the total amount of chips on the first tray is larger.
____ the two additions and the final comparison operation are all required for success.
Exercise 7 자기 조절과 인지 자원
____ can be hard work.
In fact, Roy Baumeister and his colleagues liken self-regulation ____ exercising a muscle.
At first, the ____ may be easy, but with repetitions it becomes harder and harder.
And after the muscle is fatigued, it may be difficult to use it for some time until it ____
Similarly, exerting self-control in one task (such as trying to suppress thoughts about a particular object) ____ people's ability to exercise control in a completely different task, such as persisting in a difficult figure-drawing or anagram-solving task.
The fact that self-regulation depletes some inner resource in this way may even account for the observation that people who are fatigued, under stress, or are low in regulatory resources for other reasons often turn to tempting behaviors that are ____ in the long run.
These outcomes are not inevitable, however; recent studies suggest ____ at times, a cognitive load may reduce attention to, and feelings of temptation by, attractive stimuli such as calorie-rich treat foods.
The reason appears to be that some cognitive ____ are required to recognize the tempting nature of such stimuli, so at times a demanding cognitive task may actually facilitate self-regulation.
Exercise 8 기억에 대한 비유
Most metaphors of memory over the centuries have described the memory system as a storehouse, or palace with ____ rooms in which memories may be placed.
A more up-to-date ____ of this storehouse metaphor is a large library.
In such a system, new books are stored in precise locations ____ to such specified characteristics as the general topic, date of publication, and author's name.
Armed with such knowledge, a borrower ____ retrieve the sought-for volume successfully at a later time.
Even a huge library like the Library of Congress works effectively on this system, but when we consider human memory — when metaphors meet the brain, as it were — the ____ is less persuasive.
There is little evidence, for instance, that our millions of specific memories are each stored in just one specific ____ in the brain; in contrast, most neuroscientists now believe that memories are represented by neural networks distributed widely throughout the cerebral cortex.
Additionally, the library metaphor suggests that memories of events and pieces of knowledge are fixed objects, like books on shelves, whereas a stronger case can be made for memories as dynamic activities ____ the brain rather than as static entities.
Exercise 9 환경의 수용 능력
____ environments are complex and ever-changing, carrying capacity can vary.
If a fire destroys a forest, for example, the carrying capacities for most ____ animals will decline, whereas carrying capacities for species that benefit from fire (such as fire-adapted grasses or trees with specially adapted seeds) will increase.
Our own species has proven capable of intentionally altering our environment to raise our ____ capacity.
When our ancestors began to build shelters and use fire for heating and cooking, they eased the limiting factors ____ cold climates and were able to expand into new territory.
As human civilization developed, we overcame limiting factors through the development of new technologies ____ cultural institutions.
People have managed so far to ____ the planet's carrying capacity for our species, but we have done so by appropriating immense proportions of the planet's natural resources.
In the process, we have reduced carrying capacities for countless other organisms that rely on ____ same resources.
With carrying capacity for individual species being fluid due to the nature of environments, humans ____ successfully increased their own by reshaping their living environments, but this has come at the expense of the carrying capacity for other species.
Exercise 10 시간 인식이 도덕적 판단에 미치는 영향
A groundbreaking study of morality ____ time by Eugene Caruso began by pointing out that moral rules are generally assumed to remain constant.
An act that was morally wrong yesterday will be morally wrong tomorrow, and to the ____ degree, assuming the circumstances have not changed.
Yet, his work found that people condemned identical misdeeds more when set in the ____ than in the past.
In general, people seem to "moralize" ____ future.
That is, they apply stricter moral rules to the future than the past or present ____ show greater moral concern.
In various studies, thinking about the future made people condemn ____ by others more intensely, as opposed to thinking about the present.
____ even called for more severe punishment for themselves for future misdeeds than in the past.
So it is not simply a ____ of selfishly wanting everyone else to obey the rules and exempting oneself.
People will make greater sacrifices for their reputation when focused on the future than ____ present.
People are even ____ virtuous and generous in their own actions, or at least they say they would be, when they are thinking about the future and the present.
That's because ____ about the future makes them worry about having a good reputation.
Exercise 11-12 학습 잠재력
Though thousands of books have been written about learning, the concept of learning potential remains ____ elaborated.
One ____ the possible reasons for such a state of affairs is the tendency to view learning only through its products.
____ a math or history exam is given to students, it is assumed that the results of the exam will reveal the efficiency of students' previous learning.
In other words, ____ we can see in such an exam is only the result rather than the process of learning.
Moreover, such an exam provides us with relatively little information about each student's potential ____ learning something new.
For example, ____ student can achieve good exam results by investing much more time in learning than another student who achieved the same result.
The efficiency of the ____ one is thus lower than that of the second student, but this factor is "hidden" in a typical exam.
The situation is even more complicated in the case of so-called intelligence ____
Some psychologists insist that properly designed intelligence tests tap into the individual's innate abilities that ____ unrelated to his or her learning experiences.
Others, however, define intelligence itself as a "general learning ability" and claim that intelligence tests provide us with a pretty accurate estimate of not only personal knowledge but ____ the person's learning ability.
Irrespective of the ____ however, the results of intelligence tests provide information only about people's current knowledge and problem-solving skills but say little about their learning potential.